About pierre robin malformation sequence
What is pierre robin malformation sequence?
Pierre Robin sequence is characterized by an unusually small lower jaw (micrognathia) and downward displacement of the tongue (glossoptosis). Some infants also have an abnormal opening in the roof of the mouth (cleft palate); both the soft and hard palate can be affected.
What are the symptoms for pierre robin malformation sequence?
PRS involves physical changes during development that lead to altered oral cavity anatomy. Since air and food both pass through the mouth and down the throat, breathing and feeding problems are common.
In PRS, the lower jaw (mandible) characteristically has an altered shape and position. Typically, it has a reduced length and is located toward the back (microretrognathia). In turn, these changes in the mandible can influence the tongue’s positioning toward the back of the mouth (a ‘retruded’ tongue). Anatomic anomalies of PRS also frequently include a U-shaped cleft palate, which affects the dynamics of breathing and speech development.
Specifically, the displacement of the tongue toward the back (posterior) of the mouth predisposes it to fall toward the throat. This may obstruct the airway and cause difficulty breathing. This can vary in severity, ranging from mild disturbance to life-threatening respiratory distress. Airway obstruction can also occur during the night, in the case of a related condition called ‘obstructive sleep apnea’. This is a sleep disorder characterized by breathing that temporarily stops and restarts because of periodic blockage of the airways.
Since food traveling toward the gastrointestinal tract also passes through the mouth and throat, feeding difficulties can also arise due to abnormal oral cavity anatomy. Depending on the severity, this can lead to issues like choking (aspiration) or gaining less weight gain than expected (which doctors refer to as ‘failure to thrive’). There is also a higher prevalence of acid (gastroesophageal) reflux in children with PRS.
Other possible manifestations of PRS include cardiovascular and lung conditions, such as heart murmurs, high blood pressure in the arteries of the lungs (pulmonary hypertension), and narrowing of the opening between the lung artery and the right ventricle of the heart (pulmonary stenosis). Anomalies of the musculoskeletal system, including those in the arms, legs, feet, and vertebral column, are also common. Inflammation of the middle ear (otitis media) usually accompanied by repeat ear infections occurs in about 80% of patients, and eye (ocular) defects are noted in about 10% to 30% of patients. Teeth present at birth (natal teeth) are another frequent finding.
What are the causes for pierre robin malformation sequence?
At present, the exact cause of PRS is unknown. The most widely held view is that multiple contributing factors lead to a sequence of physical changes within the oral cavity. These changes are thought to occur in a series of steps, rather than as isolated events. Specifically, it is believed that failure of the lower jaw to fully develop early in gestation causes the tongue to be positioned toward the back and high up in the mouth cavity, which, in turn, prevents palate closure.
PRS as a condition can occur by itself (‘isolated PRS’) or as a feature in multiple anomaly disorders (‘syndromic PRS’). When PRS occurs on its own, DNA near a gene called SOX9 is the most commonly affected region. The SOX9 gene allows for the production of the SOX9 protein, which plays a critical role in skeletal development. In affected individuals, there are often mutations in regions of DNA that positively modulate SOX9’s activity (enhancers). When these areas are damaged, the SOX9 gene’s activity is reduced, which leads to less normal SOX9 protein being produced. This is believed to play a role in the craniofacial abnormalities characteristically associated with PRS.
At present, most cases of isolated PRS are believed to arise sporadically, or through new (de novo) genetic changes, rather than being inherited from one generation to the next. In the rarer familial cases of isolated PRS, research has favored an autosomal dominant mode of inheritance. Syndromic PRS is inherited following the same genetic pattern as the condition that it is associated with, meaning that this may vary depending on the syndrome.
Dominant genetic disorders occur when only a single copy of an abnormal gene is necessary to cause a particular disease. The abnormal gene can be inherited from either parent or can be the result of a mutated (changed) gene in the affected individual. The risk of passing the abnormal gene from an affected parent to an offspring is 50% for each pregnancy. The risk is the same for males and females.
What are the treatments for pierre robin malformation sequence?
Treatment of PRS is multifaceted and individualized, with surgery being performed only to solve the functional problems that a patient may have. Surgical treatments may be indicated for PRS patients with more severe clinical conditions, often those associated with airway impairment.
Infants with PRS should be observed closely for breathing difficulties. Placing the child on his or her stomach (prone position), rather than on his or her back, can help prevent the tongue from falling back toward the throat. If this does not solve the problem of airway obstruction, small tube-like instruments such as a ‘nasopharyngeal airway’ may be inserted into the nose to keep the airways open. If airway obstruction is even more severe, a tube may be inserted in the infant’s throat in hospital (intubation) or, rarely, a surgical opening may be made into the trachea through the neck (tracheostomy) to assist the infant in breathing.
To close the cleft palate, surgery is typically performed between 12 and 18 months of age. Doctors may postpone the corrective surgery, however, to allow the opening in the palate to close on its own as natural growth occurs.
Surgery to improve the appearance of the jaw is rarely necessary because the small lower jaw seen at birth most often grows to a more normal size by 18 months of age. To address feeding-related difficulties, a variety of specially adapted bottles and nipples may be used. If feeding problems are unresolved and severe, a feeding tube may be needed temporarily in order to assist with proper weight gain.
What are the risk factors for pierre robin malformation sequence?
Pierre-robin malformation sequence, also known as Pierre-Robin syndrome, is a congenital condition characterized by an underdeveloped jaw, backward displacement of the tongue, and upper airway obstruction. Another common feature is the U-shaped cleft palate. A child born with the disease has trouble breathing and feeding. Recurrent ear infections, hearing loss, natal teeth, and teeth crowding are also common. The condition is highly common among twins. The exact cause of the defects is not known yet.
Risk factors
1. Many studies report the sporadic incidence and de novo genetic mutations to cause the disease.
2. Genetic mutations in the DNA near the gene SOX9. SOX9 is a protein that plays a crucial role in skeletal development. The changes in the region closer to SOX9 causes the reduced expression of the gene. De novo mutations are caused during the formation of gametes and after zygote formation. 3. They are also caused by exposure to nucleotide-altering agents, such as harmful radiations and chemical agents. The common chemical mutagens are alkylating agents, including ethyl methane sulfonate and N-methyl-N-nitrosourea.
4. Though it can occur in somatic and germ cells, mutations are passed onto the next generation through germ cells.
5. There are no gender-related risk factors observed to date; males and females are affected equally.
Symptoms
An underdeveloped jaw and small chin,A tongue that's more posteriorly positioned due to the small jaw,Snoring and airway obstruction due to a tongue that falls toward the throat,A high-arched palate (roof of the mouth),An opening in the roof of the mouth (cleft palate)
Conditions
Underdeveloped jaw,Backward displacement of the tongue and upper airway obstruction, and U-shaped cleft palate
Drugs
Therapies
Is there a cure/medications for pierre robin malformation sequence?
Symptomatic and supportive treatment may be provided using a multidisciplinary team approach, in order to best meet the needs of the affected individual. If speech is impaired, the child should participate in speech therapy or be monitored by a speech pathologist. Ear, nose, and throat doctors (otolaryngologists) and audiologists can provide follow-up on ear- and hearing-related issues. Surgically placed drainage tubes may be recommended if ear infections are recurrent. A combination of orthodontists, maxillofacial surgeons, and dentists may work together to monitor the oral cavity, for example by looking to avoid crowding of the teeth and to ensure proper tooth alignment. Ophthalmology may be consulted to monitor for ocular abnormalities. Genetic counseling may be of benefit for patients and their families.